Home›Browse by Discipline›Disciplines›ThermodynamicsDisciplinesThermodynamicsCitation FormatsGeneral ReferenceGeneral Reference Citation TextScience Atlas. "Thermodynamics." Accessed August 30, 2026. https://science.interactiveatlas.org/disciplines/thermodynamics.Copy General ReferenceAPA StyleAPA Style Citation TextScience Atlas. (n.d.). Thermodynamics. Retrieved August 30, 2026, from https://science.interactiveatlas.org/disciplines/thermodynamicsCopy APA StyleBibTeXBibTeX Citation Text@misc{scienceatlas-thermodynamics, author = {Science Atlas}, title = {Thermodynamics}, year = {2026}, url = {https://science.interactiveatlas.org/disciplines/thermodynamics}, note = {Accessed August 30, 2026} }Copy BibTeXReference and ClassificationVerifiedThermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, and the transformation of energy from one form to another. Its laws describe limits, such as the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine, that no physical process can cross.FactsCross-Tradition ConnectionsSourcesComments (0)Reader Challenges (0 open reader challenges)FactsFounded YearWell-attested1824 1Historians commonly date the field's start to Sadi Carnot's 1824 analysis of heat engines; the word thermodynamics itself was coined later, by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1849.Central QuestionWell-attestedHow do the macroscopic laws of thermodynamics, derived for systems near equilibrium, extend to natural systems driven far from equilibrium, where the field's own methods currently fall short? 2ScopeWell-attestedThermodynamics studies heat, work and temperature and their relation to energy, entropy and the physical properties of matter and radiation. 2SignificanceWell-attestedFrench physicist Sadi Carnot's 1824 Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science. Its foundational laws emerged within three decades through the near simultaneous work of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, in the 1850s, and thermodynamics now underlies physical chemistry, biochemistry, and chemical and mechanical engineering alike. 2Cross-Tradition ConnectionsFounded BySadi Carnot, Scientists Well-attested Source Thermodynamics (Wikipedia)tier 2Has ScientistJ. Willard Gibbs, Scientists Well-attested ConnectedGibbs's 1876 to 1878 papers founded chemical thermodynamics; his existing Works In edge to Materials Science, for the phase rule, is left untouched.Source J. Willard Gibbs (Britannica)tier 1James Clerk Maxwell, Scientists Well-attested Source James Clerk Maxwell (MacTutor)tier 2James Prescott Joule, Scientists Well-attested Source James Prescott Joule (Britannica)tier 1Ludwig Boltzmann, Scientists Well-attested Source Ludwig Boltzmann (Britannica)tier 1Rudolf Clausius, Scientists Well-attested Source Rudolf Clausius (Britannica)tier 1Sadi Carnot, Scientists Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, Scientists Well-attested Source William Thomson, Baron Kelvin (Britannica)tier 1Has TheoryAbsolute Temperature Scale, Concepts Well-attested Source Kelvin Temperature Scale (Britannica)tier 1Carnot Cycle, Concepts Well-attested Source Carnot Cycle (Britannica)tier 1Entropy, Concepts Well-attested Source Entropy (Britannica)tier 1First Law of Thermodynamics, Theories Well-attested Source First Law of Thermodynamics (Britannica)tier 1Second Law of Thermodynamics, Theories Well-attested Source Second Law of Thermodynamics (Britannica)tier 1Statistical Mechanics, Theories Well-attested Source Ludwig Boltzmann (MacTutor)tier 2Third Law of Thermodynamics, Theories Well-attested Source Third Law of Thermodynamics (Wikipedia)tier 3Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, Theories Well-attested Source Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (Wikipedia)tier 3Part OfPhysics, Disciplines Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1StudiesAbsolute Temperature Scale, Concepts Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Carnot Cycle, Concepts Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Entropy, Concepts Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Heat Engine, Concepts Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution, Concepts Well-attested Source Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Sources1. Sadi Carnot (Britannica)tier 1Encyclopaedia BritannicaView the Source2. Thermodynamics (Wikipedia)tier 2WikipediaLead sectionQuote, Lead sectionThermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation.View the Source2. Thermodynamics (Wikipedia)tier 2WikipediaFounded By: Sadi CarnotView the SourceComments (0)No comments yet. Be the first to share a thought.Sign in to join the discussion.Reader Challenges (0 open reader challenges)No disputes yet. Spotted an error or a better source? Open the first one.Sign in to dispute this or suggest a correction.View At A Past YearThe atlas records no dated fact of its own for this entry, so there is no other year to choose.Show This Year